HIGH FLYERS THINK TANK

Innovative technical solutions for water management in Australia

University of Adelaide, 30 October 2006

Case studies

Sensor technology for the Australian dairy industry

The challenges

The dairy industry is under considerable pressure with ongoing drought conditions, decreased profitability and the need to increase production to meet growing demands. This is occurring at a time when there has been deregulation of the industry and a trend towards larger farms. Thus, opportunities for the application of inexpensive and available innovations to assist and improve the application of irrigation water to alleviate competition for water resources should be made available.

There are some ideal locations for such technology. For example, 'the dairy industry in northern Victoria uses more than half the irrigation water in the Goulburn Murray Irrigation District, mainly for growing pasture' (Lawson et al. 2006). In the Lower Murray swamps of South Australia which have been converted to pasture land, about 70 per cent of water used for irrigation is applied to dairy and irrigated pasture. These areas are increasingly subjected to rising salinity and so it is becoming economic to sell water rather than run dairy farms. 'Inflows into South Australia's Lower Murray Swamps are currently unmeasured although rehabilitation programs are underway' (MDBC et al., 2006).

Some solutions

Some innovative solutions include more efficient channel gate systems, preferably automatically operated and controlled by wireless systems. These provide considerably better regulation for measuring the application of water, and such control systems need not be energy intensive. They can be solar-powered, such as the one developed by National Information and Communications Technology Australia Ltd (NICTA). Further information is available at http://www.nicta.com.au.

Sensors can be used to monitor soil salinity and moisture to better manage the amounts of water required to be delivered to the pasture.

References

Lawson, A., Greenwood, K., Kelly, K. Comparative water use productivity of forages for the dairy industry in northern Victoria. Proceedings of the Australian Agronomy Conference 2006, Australian Society of Agronomy. http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2006/concurrent/water/4566_lawsonar.htm

Murray-Darling Basin Commission and Webb McKeown and Associates Pty Ltd. Improvement in accuracy of measurements of diversions and returns under the cap. Final Report. October 2006. http://www.mdbc.gov.au/__data/page/86/Bulkofftakes_Registry_Report_18Oct2006v1.pdf

Moving beyond mindsets – the case of desalination

The challenge

Growing development and increased mining operations in the Eyre Peninsula are placing pressure on local infrastructure and water resources.

'Eyre Peninsula in South Australia is facing a water shortage. This will continue because the groundwater that has been the mainstay of the water supply in this area is depleted'(Clarke, 2006). The water at Eyre Peninsula is currently provided at a similar price as the water supplied elsewhere in South Australia, for equity reasons. However, the actual cost of delivering the water to this location is three or four times that of delivering it anywhere else. The people of Eyre Peninsula, like others on the SA Water supply, pay about $0.90/kL for their water. A point made by some in relation to pricing is that expectations are not static and that different costs may eventually become acceptable in different locations, especially if the water provided comes from renewable sources.

A solution

One option that has been raised is for BHP Billiton to supply water from wind-powered desalination (ABC Online, 2006). 'The objective would be to provide about 18-36 gigalitres per year from a seawater desalination facility built in the upper Spencer Gulf of South Australia. The aim would be to supply the expansion of the Olympic Dam copper, uranium and gold mine as well as the local townships. Whyalla is the most likely site because of its distance to Olympic Dam and relatively low Gulf salinity. There is also already a system of salt-production evaporation ponds at Whyalla' (Clarke, 2006).

A new, stand-alone, desalination plant would have to compete to some extent with the existing water supply system. However, there would be advantages because if such a plant treats brackish water (eg, from Tod Reservoir) then it would not be too energy intensive. If a desalination plant was located at this reservoir or the Spencer Gulf at Louth Bay, then transport costs would be lower because the water requires less pumping to deliver it locally.

'Some disadvantages of the system have been raised by the local aquaculture industry. These stakeholders are concerned that a desalination plant would extract a huge amount of seawater. This could negatively affect prawn larvae and other local species, resulting in an altered and impacted ecology of the region' (Leong, 2006). The alternatives to desalination include connecting the area with the major pipelines that currently feed Whyalla on the eastern side of the Eyre Peninsula. 'There are several problems with this approach which include a gap of 100 kilometres between the two systems (Whyalla to Cowell or Whyalla to Kimba); and The Murray River is already over-committed.' (Clarke, 2006).

References

Clarke, D. 2006. Eyre Peninsula water supply: a suggested cure. http://au.geocities.com/daveclarkecb/EyrePenWater.html

ABC Online. Desalination plant proposed for Eyre Peninsula. 17 February 2006. http://www.abc.net.au/news/australia/sa/port/200602/s1572330.htm

Leong, L. The week that was on the Eyre Peninsula. 15 September 2006. http://www.abc.net.au/eyre/stories/s1743592.htm

Genetic breeding technology for salinity and drought tolerance

The challenge

Increased use of genetic breeding technology in plants to improve drought-resistance and salt-resistance. This means that an agreement on a philosophy for genetic modification in agriculture is becoming increasingly necessary for Australia.

Some solutions

Drought tolerance in genetically modified sugarcane

'The Office of the Gene Technology Regulator has received an application for a licence for the intentional release of up to 2500 lines of genetically modified (GM) sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid) into the environment on a limited scale and under controlled conditions. The aim of the study is to conduct very early stage research to examine the effect of using different genetic modification methods to transform sugarcane, and the influence of introduced genes for altered plant architecture, drought tolerance and efficiency of nitrogen utilisation on key altered agronomic characters, including sugarcane yield. The three genes for improved drought tolerance characteristics will come from the bacterium Escherichia coli, thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), and apple (Malus x domestica) plants. The release is proposed to take place at three sites; Caboolture Shire, Bundaberg City Council, and Cairns City Council in Queensland on a maximum area of 6 ha during each of the three growing seasons between March 2007 and November 2010' (Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, 2006. The licence application is available at http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/Content/dir070-4/$FILE/dir070appsum2.rtf).

Salt tolerance in genetically modified wheat and barley

'Cropping on saline land is restricted by the low tolerance of crops to salinity and waterlogging. Prospects for improving salt tolerance in wheat and barley include the use of: (i) intra-specific variation, (ii) variation for salt tolerance in the progenitors of these cereals, (iii) wide-hybridisation with halophytic 'wild' relatives (an option for wheat, but not barley), and (iv) transgenic techniques…A highlight of the work on intra-species sources of tolerance is that in which new sources of tolerance have been identified for durum wheat which should be available in the near future. In contrast to these improvements in durum wheat, a similar approach has not been used with bread wheat or barley' (Colmer et al., 2005).

Relief from insect attack with BT cotton enabled focus on water efficiency gains

'The only transgenic agronomic crops commercially grown in Australia are insect resistant and glyphosate-resistant cotton, which use genes isolated from common bacteria to produce proteins that protect the crop from insect attack and the herbicide. The insect resistant cotton uses genes isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), to produce proteins that attack the midgut of some caterpillars. When produced inside the plant, the persistence of Bt is much greater, and even pests that bore into the plant (and might not eat a spray) can be controlled' (Roush, 2001).

Growers who use Bt cotton have found that, having being released from the difficulties associated with controlling insect attacks on crops, they are free to focus their attention on improving water-use efficiency, using techniques such as plant spacing and managing soil shading to reduce evaporation.

References

Colmer T., Munns R., Flowers T. 2005. Improving salt tolerance of wheat and barley: future prospects. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 45: 1425-1443.

Roush, R. Biotechnology and Weed Management. The Australian Society of Agronomy. http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2001/plenary/6/roush.htm.

Decision-making tools for choosing among crops

The challenge

'Of the 325 surface water basins in Australia identified by the National Land and Water Resources Audit, 34 are close to or are being over-used and of 528 groundwater management units, 59 are assessed as being highly or overdeveloped' (NLWRA, 2001). 'Many of these storages are used for irrigation purposes and all food and fibre production has a significant water requirement that represents about 70 per cent of Australia's water use. It is estimated that about 6000 litres of water is required for every meal' (Meyer, 2006).

Changes in the price and availability of water may result in a shift to production of crops with a lesser demand for water. As shown in Figure 1, there are marked differences among crops in the average revenue generated per megalitre of irrigated water required.

Figure 1. Average revenue generated per megalitre of irrigated water required

Source: Meyer, W., Marvanek, S., Bryan, B., Christen, E., Khan, S., Shi, T., Young, M., QED Pty Ltd. June 2005. CRC Research Centre for Irrigation Futures, CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagship. Irrigation in perspective – irrigation in the Murray and Murrumbidgee Basins – a bird's eye view, p. 11.

There is a demand for improved decision-making tools to facilitate the choice between crops and cropping regimes in response to different water trading possibilities and allowances. Some questions that arise are: 'When should only the highest value crops that have sufficient returns for the water used/required be planted?' (see Figure 2). 'What will be the long-term implications for international trade, import and export markets?'

A solution

'A watershed management decision support system has two major components: a GIS-based modelling system and a graphical user interface' (Narula, 2005). Exchange of data between GIS and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, that in the case of water management can be coupled with hydraulic modelling software, are becoming much simpler. Remote monitoring and control systems have to be easily tailored to different industries because the investment scales can be markedly different and irrigation needs vary in intensiveness (vineyards, market garden industry and pasture). Australia could employ a Water Resources Observation Network (WRON): an information system that can tell us how much water we have now and expect to have in the future, as well as who is entitled to use it and under what conditions. Web-based reporting tools can be delivered to suit the individual needs of various end-users; and within this system, raw data, forecasts and predictions can be processed by sophisticated computer models for supporting and justifying informed management decisions. More information is available at http://wron.net.au.

Figure 2. Water requirements of broad agricultural land uses 2000/01 in the Murray-Darling Basin
Source: Bryan, B. and Marvanek, S. (2004) Quantifying and valuing land use change for ICM evaluation in the Murray-Darling Basin 1996/97 – 2000/01. Stage 2 Report to the Murray-Darling Basin Commission.

References

Narula, K., Towards a comprehensive watershed management decision support system. TERI Newswire 11(9), 1-15 May 2005. http://static.teriin.org/features/art241.htm

National Land and Water Resources Audit, 2001. Australian Water Resources Assessment 2000 Surface water and groundwater – availability and quality. http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/water/pubs/national/water_contents.html

Meyer, W., 2006. Water, crops, irrigation and the Murray. Provided from a Powerpoint presentation for Cooperative Research Centre – Irrigation Futures.

STEDS – Septic Tank Effluent Disposal Schemes

The challenge

Finding cheap, reliable and sustainable methods for wastewater disposal. In peri-urban areas, the number of developments that are not serviced with sewer systems are increasing (Beal et al., 2006). 'There are over 1 million households (2,600,000 people) in Australia that rely on on-site wastewater treatments and disposal systems…The most common (>85%) on-site system in Australia, indeed universally, is the septic tank – soil absorption system (SAS)' (Beal et al., 2006).

A solution

'Settled sewerage systems (STEDS) are the most cost effective form of wastewater treatment for regional and country South Australia where site conditions will not support an on-site system. STEDS are a drainage system for collecting pre-treated wastewater from septic tanks or aerobic systems and conveying it by gravity, vacuum systems, or pumping this wastewater to a treatment facility. The correct operation and maintenance of a STEDS is reliant on adequate knowledge of the system components (either by service industry operators or individual owners). As a result, in developing an Operation and Maintenance Manual, all components within the system must be identified and documented, to include the following:

• Design Standards
• Design Calculations and Drawings
• 'As Constructed'Drawings / Construction Information
• Flow Diagrams
• Details of System – collection, treatment and disposal' (LGA South Australia, 2003).

'Installation of telemetry monitoring at all pump stations is recommended to remotely detect problems and this would also assist with immediately addressing any scheme overflow issues, for example, lagoon overflow into waters (as defined in the EPA's Environment Protection (Water Quality) Policy 2003). Further information available at: http://www.lga.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=752' (LGA South Australia, 2003).

References

Beal, C., Gardner, T., Menzies, N., 2006. Predicting the failure of septic tank – soil absorption systems: A step closer to managing water quality in non-sewered catchments. Proceedings from 9th International River Symposium 4-7 September, 2006, Brisbane, Australia. http://www.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=7

Local Government Association of South Australia (LGA SA), Review of STEDS in South Australia – Volume 1 – Final Report. January 2003, Ref No 20020449RA3G. Tonkin Consulting in Association with Katalyst21 (sector review, reform options, analysis and the way forward) and Economic Research Consultants (economic modelling and analysis). http://www.lga.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/Review_of_STEDS_in_SA__(11).pdf